Factors For and Against Essay Example for Free

Factors For and Against EssayReasons for legalization (ranked from strongest to weakest)1. Medical benefits for terminal unsoundnesses such as cancer. 2. Police and homage resources would be freed to pursue more serious crimes. 3. The FDA could regulate the quality and safety of the dose. 4. This drug has fewer nerve effects that most currently legal narcotics. 5. Legalization would lower prices, thereby reducing crimes such as theft. 6. If taxed sales of this drug would help lift the U.S. economy by billions of dollars a year. Reasons against legalization (ranked from strongest to weakest) 1. Issues such as driving under the influence may increase. 2. Legalizing this drug might increase the number of juvenile users. 3. This drug may be a gateway drug to more dangerous drugs such as diacetylmorphine or cocaine 4. There would be an increase in lung damage and the damage to non-users through blurb hand smoke. 5. Legalization of this drug could lead to legalization of harder drugs 6. Some consider this drug chastely wrong.I guide seen the effects this drug has on a terminally ill patient. My late husband, who was just 39 years old when he died of colon cancer, used Marijuana on just a meet of occasions and the difference before and after its use were abundantly clear. Tom was diagnosed with colon cancer at the age of 36, and only given 15 months to live, because of his military and ethical background he swore he would neer use Marijuana unless it was legalized. As his illness got worse his thinking changed, he just wanted to get hold better, and the narcotics he was prescribed by his oncologist made him weak, tired, decreased his craving and caused nausea.He hated being on these narcotics as he didnt feel he could enjoy the little life he had left, he could b arly get out of bed let alone play with his children. During the second year of his illness we went camping with rough friends, to a little cabin 2 hours off the paved road. Tom could scant ily sit up in front of the campfire, exclusively tried his best to enjoy possibly the weather camping trip of his life. After the children were asleep one of our friends began to smoke marijuana and asked if we wanted any, I declined however Tom wanted to try it, just to see how it would make him feel. Within five minutes of smoking marijuana Tom was up walking around, he ate, laughed and even began helping cut wood and help to the fire. The difference was noniceable to us all, it was amazing. First thing in the morning he smoked somewhat more marijuana, and was able to play with his children, go for a mile long walk and eat some more.Upon returning home Tom stated that while he would like to use the drug again, but he couldnt bring himself to break the law, and therefore did not try the drug again. During Toms illness those two short days in the mountains were some of his best. The marijuana took away his nausea and pain, his appetite was increased and his pain was nowhere ne ar the same high levels he experienced without the drug. Because I have seen the benefits of this drug in person, I have lieud this as my strongest assembly line for the legalization of this drug.It was very heavy for me to rank the motives for the legalization of marijuana, because I found them all to be quite beneficial, yet I had to place the fiscal benefit towards the bottom of the list. My reasoning for this is because if this drug were moved from a schedule I drug to a schedule II drug, and was only legal if prescribed, the prescription would not be taxed thereby eliminating this argument for the legalization.My strongest reason against the legalization of marijuana is the possible dangers of driving while under the influence of this drug. This is a abundant issue with most any drug, most notably alcohol, but this danger is not only make up to the user but those around the user as well. While many people are halt and arrested for driving under the influence of marijuana , it would seem logical that this would only increase with legalization, much like alcohol.My weakest argument against legalization is that it is considered morally wrong by some people. The reason I placed this last is because not all people would consider this morally wrong. There are many things that people consider morally wrong, yet they are legal. For example the Mormon religion believes that alcohol, tea, coffee and caffeinated drinks are morally wrong, yet these are not made illegal. This argument seems to be the loosest of all the arguments, and therefore was placed at the bottom of the list.

Terms of reference Essay Example for Free

Terms of reference EssayThis spread oer is based on comparing six different documents. I have to comp be 2 documents from 3 different companies. I chose to compare 3 course cataloguees and 3 application forms. All information was collected stomach year when I was looking at for a montage to go to. I will be looking at different parts of the documents from how many a(prenominal) pages they have and how they appeal to people looking for a collage to go to. I will in any case be paternity about how well the documents do in that location job. I found by looking at each prospectus there were similar elements betwixt them and also that they were similar to one some other.I saw each(prenominal) that all prospectuses have had information on courses. I noticed that all the application forms were laid out the selfsame(prenominal) they all used boxes all application forms use boxes because it makes the forms look better. The first document I collected was a prospectus from Sp elthorne collage I got the prospectus by ordering it on-line from www. spelthorne. ac. uk but it can also be picked up from Spelthorne collage in Ashford. The Spelthorne prospectus is around 2/3rds the size of an A4 piece of paper and has boarder on the front page it also has writing expiry on top of many pictures the writing is press release diagonal.On the cover it also give the viewer the effect of looking at a website it has a list of courses and mouse over hand clicking on a subject, because the prospectus is only 2/3rds of an A4 tag of paper when opened it feels extra long. A special type of paper is used on the cover. This prospectus has to be one of the smallest I have seen. The layout of nearly every page in this prospectus is the same it has a few pictures at the top of the page of at the bottom some pictures and text disguised around them every page has a charge at the top (e.g. courses then it writes what course it is) to a fault on every page there is a boarder on the left the boarder is great then any were else on the page this is because information is written here like a contents. both other page has the Spelthorne website at the bottom in the boarder and also it has a mouse over saying Adult education courses see page 28 for full listing. Every page also has a olympian line going through the top of it and a full circle going through the large boarder on the left hand side.The layout of the courses is very good they have a big heading in the boarder with a content page. By looking at this prospectus you can see that the main colour of it is color but the front cover also has many different font colours these vary from white, orange, blue, red and yellow. The main colour that caught my eye when looking at this prospectus was the orange this was because it was brighter than any other colour on the page and stood out the most another colour I thought looked very well on the front cover was the whitish purple that was in the page boarder. When opening the prospectus you can still see that the dominate colour is purple but on the first few pages there are many other colours to much(prenominal) as light blue used as a fundament ground with black writing on top of it. A lot of white is also used as background colour. aft(prenominal) the first few pages the purple boarder appears around the whole page other colours are also used but are not as noticed as purple. They make heading of courses stand out by making them a blue. On some pages a blue back ground is used to make information stick out more. Overall I think the colour scheme is very straight forward but I think they over did it with the purple.

Romeo and Juliet Tragedy Essay Example for Free

Romeo and Juliet cataclysm EssayRomeo and Juliet is a romantic tragedy mulct by Willam Shakespe atomic number 18. The play is just about devil two-year-old adults who argon in kip down. They ar both victims of a bitter feud between their well-respected families.I render looked up Romeo in the dictionary to give me an insight as to what the play was about and as in brief as I read the meaning of Romeo I knew it was a love playA hero- thusly a man who is an ardent loverThe play is set in the city of Verona. Romeo and Juliet (the main char performers of the play) be part of the Montague family (Romeo) and part of the capulets family (Juliet).The play begins with a street iron out between the servants of both families. The price brings the fight to an abrupt end.Juliet is meant to be getting marital to Count Paris, chosen by her father. However Romeo and Juliet, who meet at a ball, soon fall in love and get married in mystery.Juliet fakes her own last with a drug friar Lawrence issued her and is found in bed dead on her wedding daylight in which she is too marry Count Paris. She is buried in a tomb, which is where Romeo finds her.Romeo has not yet have a note saying that Juliet is not dead and kills him with poison. Juliet wakes up after the drug has worn make and Romeo dead and she kill herself (for real) with Romeos dagger.The two grieving families end the feud between them at the end of the play. save do they end the feud when death is struck upon them.Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy be pee-pee Romeos and Juliets love was singled to end in death and is the solo function that ends the feud between the familiesThe fearful passage of their death-marked loveI meet that dramatic tensity is when someone is creating a shooting being big and powerful, having something struck upon you suddenly. This relates to the play because the play is powerful and it captures the audiences attention. It has a lot of cliffhangers for example where Romeo kills Tybalt in proceeding 3 scenes 1 we venture back what entrust happen next? Will Romeo die? What ordain Juliet do if her love is brutally murdered by her own family? All of these create dramatic tension.By the use of char coiffeers, events, lanuage the essay aims to explain my views on Romeo and Juliet and to divide and explain to people the play of Romeo and Juliet so that they understand what is happening and what it is all about. It will also increase my k straightledge of the play so I can understand it and put myself in their shoes hopefully capturing what they must have felt and been equal.From reading the prologue I understand that both of the capulets and Montagues is as equal as one another, they both have the same amount of wealth and respectTwo households both similar in dignityI know that Romeo and Juliet are madly in love and are ordain for one anotherA pair of star crossed lovers set abouts their livesA pair of star-crossed lovers could mean that Romeo and Ju liets love is doomed by the influence of the stars and that they are madly in love. However the stars are crossed and this shows us that there is a shadow in the way and that something will go wrong.Also from the prologue the audience is told of the shutdown of the play, they are told that the lovers are fated, they are star-crossed, their love will end in death, and that the lovers death, and the lovers death is the only thing that will end the long feud between the families.But their childrens end, nought could removeIn act 3 scenes 1, Mercutio, who is Romeos best fiend, picks a fight with tybalt who unavoidablenesss to fight Romeo. Instead Romeo trys to prevent the fight between Mercutio and tybalt. Romeo wherefore kills tybalt and flees the scene of the murder.Before Romeo appears on the scene he has come from his secret wedding to Juliet. Friar Lawrence has married them, so only the friar, Romeo and Juliet know about the marriage and the Montagues and capulets are bonded. Th ey are bonded through the two lovers marriage, undiscovered to lady Capulet she is now Romeos mother in law.I think that this scene has more dramatic tension because in this scene we are really on edge as to what will happen to Romeo now that he has murdered tybalt.Also we are anxious to know what will happen to Mercutio now that he has been wounded and we ask whether he will live or die.Mercutio is brave in this scene and when he is injured by tybalt he puts a brave face on and pretends his injuries are not sober and people believe him because he is known as the fool, however after a while Romeo realises he is lying and that he is dieing.This also causes tension because when Mercutio is first injured we (the audience) believe that he is not really hurt, so we wonder what will happen? Will he be ok? Will his injuries cause his death?The action in this scene is crucial because it keeps us on edge and makes sure that we treat watching the play to see what happens, the action build s up the tension for the final scene when both Romeo and Juliet take their own lives.The action shows that whatever happens Romeo is still a good guy because although he has killed tybalt he has through it in good faith for Mercutio.The characters involved in act 3 scene 1 are Benvolio, Mercutio, tybalt, Romeo, Petrucio, a citizen, the prince and lady Capulet, lady Montague.My thoughts/ impressions of the families from this scene areThe capulets are an evil family who only care about them selves. However there is some caring members of the family (Juliet), as she does not hold any grudges against the opposite familys think the family is uncaring because when tybalt kills Mercutio although he did not mean it he does not show any signs of sorrow for what he has done.I think that the Montagues are a caring family because as soon as Romeo enters he dialog about love, this shows he has loving feelings for someone, also Romeos best friend Benvolio is a peacemaker and does not like fighti ngOut of her favour where iam in loveRomeo does not want to fight, he does not want to harm anyone or cause trouble or fight with a member of the family and he only kills tybalt because he has murdered his best friend, and this shows that Romeo values friendshipI thought all for the bestMercutio pretends or trys to tell everyone that he is not in pain and this makes us wonder whether he is lying or whether he is telling the truth. However Romeo sees through him and we realise how much Mercutio and Romeo are hurting and we wonder what will happen next.Romeo is hesitant to get involved because he is Tybalts cousin, because he is a member of the family. This shows that he cares not just about himself and his reputation but that he cares about his family as well.At the end of the scene lady Montague feels that Romeo must not live and hat he deserves to die a tybalt has. I think that this has come about because Romeo has killed tybalt therefore he is a murder, and in time when the first play was wrote, death was a penalty for murder. I also think that the capulets do not want to accept that a member of their family was in the wrong.The characters change in act 3 scene 1 because Benvolio turns into a mischief-maker Romeo shows the audience his bad side and turns really angry and upset resulting in the murder of tybalt.In act 3 scenes 1 lady Capulet takes up the violence of the fed and demands that Romeos punishment is death. She does not change throughout the play and remains a hard, unfeeling, unsympathic woman who pushes her daughter away and is party responsible for her death.In act 3 the prince is personal because Mercutio is a kings man has been killed, the prince fulfils his words from act 1.Instead of killing Romeo the prince banishes him from the country as a result of causing death of tybaltElse, when hes found, that hour is his lastThe play ends in tragedy. The death of two lovers, Romeo and Juliet.Romeo arrives at the tomb where Juliet has been buried, me ets Paris and kills him. Believing Juliet is dead, Romeo takes the potion and dies. Juliet awakens, sees that Romeo is dead and commits suicide. As a result of this the capulets and Montagues promise never to feud againPoor scarifies of our enmityI have learnt hat dramatic tension is as I thought it to be it is something that is big, powerful but also keeps the viewers on edge because we wonder constantly what will happen next.In this play there are lot of themes. The themes involved areDisorder this is a theme because there is fighting, anger, passion and false love (between Juliet and Paris) disorder meansA lack of order or confusionThere is light and darkness because there is death, violence, sadness and secrets. spark is represented by the love between Romeo and Juliet.Darkness id represented because Romeo is sad and depressed and the sadness at the end of the play of the lovers death.Light is represented by love, life and hope.Darkness meansGloomy, dismal, sullen, threating, obscure, mysterious, evil, in secretLight meansA way of looking at or considering a matter prognosisThere is also love and passion because Romeo is in love with Juliet and passion because lady Capulet is only in her marriage because it makes her wealthy and noticeable. Romeo also shows passion regarding his feeling for Mercutio when he kills tybalt in revenge.Love means copious affection and warm feeling for one anotherPassion meansStrong desire or lustOverall I think that the play is very dramatic.The other themes as well are lies, deceit, truth, love and hate.

Marjorie Abortion Essay Example for Free

Marjorie Abortion EssayCulture is a distinctive way of life of race or groups . Culture is manifested in all aspects of life which include norms and value much(prenominal) as age, linguistic communication, gender and social values such as religion, marriage and rite of passage. Different cultural groups norms and values equivalence and contrast from unrivalled cultural group to another as shown in the table with a campaign study of westward,African,Islamic,Hinduism and Chinese tillage culture. Norms and values Comparison Contrast Age -In all the cultural groups one is considered of age of majority at 18 years. -The older command more respect from minors. -In western and Chinese culture,the old people are cared for in old age homes while in Africa Islamic,and Hindus culture, they live with their families. -In western culture children make water their rights about their life still in Africa its dictated by their parents. gender -In all cultural groups both gender are co nsidered important in contributing to family life and preservation in general. western and Chinese people gender have equal rights while African and Muslims hands are superior and have more rights than women.Language -In all groups they use symbols verbal and non verbal to overstep which are either denotative or connotative. -Language is the main form of communication. -In western culture one language like English has a wide scope of usage. when it comes to Chinese people,almost every one born in china knows Chinese language and in African language is very narrow and it have been borrowed hard from other languages. Social values all this culture have established away of life with pleasing social values -In all culture marriage is considered important for companionship and procreation.Chinese derive their values from Confucianism and taoism while in Islamic religion,they have developed their values around their religion. The western people have diversified social values dependi ng with families and individual status where as the African values are perpetually being westernized -In African culture marriage is only between couples of different sex but in western even same sex couples do marry -Hindus parent of the woman look for a prospective march a -Muslim and African men are polygamies Islamic.Rite of passage -Different stages of life for specimen birth, generalisation and death are considered important and are marked with various ceremonies. -In western culture the design are done in a special way such as in hospitals but in African they are done traditionally for example by diviners. -Hindus do bath and stick in their dead. -Muslim ensures that they bury their dead within the first day after they die Religion all culture recognize recognize supernatural being and believe there is God and also recognize hatred -Worship is in churches in western and are Christians.Africa it is in sacred areas for example, under a sacred tree -Muslims worship in mos ques. -Hindus worship in temples and pilgrimage and believe in many gods -Chinese goes to churches. Age influences skill as young people are more able to study, understand and conceptualize than the older people. excessively due to age barrier the young may be unable to learn certain issues such as leadership. Where there is gender discrimination for instance, a girl child is discriminated and are not accessed to cultivation .Where there is gender equality there is tendency of competition thus improving learning process. skill will be slow where there is language barrier or if language needs to be translated from one to the other, this hampers understanding and communication. Social values influence learning for instance in Africa, after initiation girls went for marriage while boys became warriors. This curtails continuity with education.ReferencesMarjorie Ebort,Margaret Gisler. (1999). career for culture lovers and other artsy types,McGraw-hill professional

Higher education Essay Example for Free

higher(prenominal) education EssayA Chronicle of high Education article states that only if 34 part of high-achieving high-school seniors in the bottom hind end of family in convey went to whiz of the 238 or so selective colleges, compared with 78 percent of students from the top quarter (Markell). Certainly, these numbers show that students that come from low income families arent acquire the opportunities that they deserve. With college bells going nowhere save up, students from low-income families face operose finiss. Some students hire to attend community college while some make the decision to nurse out additional loans. thither are also those who choose to drop out because they layabout no longer sustain the salute of college. Those who tire outt have the m superstary to go to a selective college are often non areaing their full potential. Therefore, college cost should be lowered so that to a greater extent people can have the opportunity to unhorse h igher education. Such a clitoris is requested firstly, due to the continuous rise in tuition, higher education is becoming little and less cheap for low-income students. check to the Journal of College Admission, from 1982 to 2007, college tuition and fees increased by 439 percent, while median family income increased by 147 percent.Last year, the net cost at four-year public universities amounted to 28 percent of median family income, while a four-year private college or university consumed 76 percent of median family income (Mahoney). These numbers show that college cost has risen at a rate that has consistently outpaced the median family income and also inflation. Patrick Callan, president of the National Center for Public indemnity and Higher Education, states, If we go on this way for another 25 years, we wont have an affordable system of higher education(Callan).Essentially, if college cost doesnt stop increasing it entrust become unaffordable and umpteen depart choos e not to get higher education. Furthermore, there are m each a(prenominal) students who arent getting the opportunity that they deserve because they are not able to afford it. At the well-nigh competitive colleges, only 14 percent of students come from the lower 50 percent of families by income (Perez-Pena). Some low-income students who study rattling hard cant reach the diploma or certificate. A New York Times article states, art object 2. 8 million students write in code in some form of higher education each year, most do not proceed straight through to graduation.Only one in five of those who enroll in two-year institutions earn an associate degree within three years, and only two in five of those who start four-year colleges complete their degrees within six years(Lewin). College being outrageously expensive is one of the origins students are not reaching their full potential. Access to higher education has become increasingly concentrated for low income families, yet a college degree is more important than ever in todays economy. Indeed, theres no denying that college tuition and expenses arent cheap.In the 2011-12 academic year, the average net cost for a full-time student at an in-state public university was about $15,000 for tuition, fees, room, board, books and incidental expenses, according to the College Board (Clark). quaternion years of college costs about 60,000 dollars. Aside from tuition, college students also have to worry about the other expenses that come with being a college student. Those who dont have enough to afford it are faced with tough decisions. According to a New York Times article, about 7 in 10 of the dropouts s encourage they had no scholarship or loan aid.Among those who got degrees, only about four in 10 went without such aid (Perez-Pena). College students who come from low-income families are being forced to take out additional loans to afford college. Some students choose to attend community college while some make the decision to take out additional loans. There are also those who choose to drop out because they can no longer sustain the cost of college. Often times, students cannot afford the cost of living while completing a college education. Certainly, there are some reasons why students drop out of college, but the decision oftentimes has a lot to do with money.According to Public Agenda, a nonpartisan public policy research firm that conducted a telephone contemplate of more than 600 people ages 22 to 30 for the report, Of students surveyed, 58 percent said they did not receive any financial help from their parents or relatives to pay tuition or fees, and 69 percent had no scholarships or financial aid (Johnson). More than half of students are not being supported by their families or anyone else for that matter. Also, more than one-half of students are not receiving any type of scholarship or financial aid.The dropouts most popular solutions were allowing part-time students to qualif y for financial aid, offering more courses on weekends and evenings, cutting costs and providing chela care (Johnson). Most times, its just not attainable for a college student to afford college costs. Moreover, students who dont have financial help from family or are not fortunate enough to get scholarships or grants are often forced work to pay for school. The New York Times states, The top reason the dropouts gave for leaving college was that it was just too hard to support themselves and go to school at the same time. balancing work and school was a bigger barrier than attending money for tuition, they said. In fact, more than a third of the dropouts said that even if they got a grant that covered their books and tuition, it would be hard to go back down to school, given their work and family commitments (Lewin). Essentially, low-income students are having to work while attending college. Many students find it difficult to find time to study, because they are too busy working part-time jobs in able to pay for their education and other necessities.Those students who are not able to balance school, work, and also other things often end up dropping out. A downturn in college tuition would definitely help those students who are in need of help financially. Ultimately, a lessen in college cost would greatly benefit the larger high society. There will be more students who will be able to afford higher education. With this in mind, higher education will lead to better access to jobs with higher pay and the broadening of a college students social and mental horizons. College students will also no longer have to worry about being buried in debt after college.As Obama, the 44th president of the United States of America, states, As a dry land, our incoming ultimately depends on equipping students like you with the skills and education a 21st-century economy demands. If you have the opportunity to reach your potential and go as far as your talent and hard work w ill take you, that doesnt just mean a higher-paying job or a shot at a middle-class life it means a stronger economy for us all. Because if your generation prospers, we all prosper. And Im counting on you to help us write the next great chapter in our American trading floor (Obama).In other words, Obama believes that higher education can lead people to success and that it is vital to the nations future. Lower college cost will lead to students reaching their potential. While it is true that a decrease in college tuition would just lead to students who are not meant for college wasting their time, there are many students who are actually academic material that cannot afford to get higher education. A study by the Hamilton Project at the Brookings Institution in Washington points out that half of Americans in the top quaternary of the income distribution have a college degree.Among the poorest fourth of Americans, fewer than one in ten graduated from college (Porter). Higher educa tion is turning into a privilege for the higher society. The rising cost of college is preventing low-income students from getting higher education. A decrease in college cost will give low-income students more options and it will benefit the larger society in the future. Ultimately, what is at stake here is that students who have the potential to succeed in college are not able to attend because they lack money.College has turned into a privilege for the higher society when it should be ones right. Colleges need to be more accountable for making sure that their students graduate. Decreasing college cost will also decrease the number of students being in debt after finishing college. Higher education cost rising is causing low-income students to be locked out of higher education. Therefore, college cost should be lowered so that more students will have the opportunity to get higher education, especially those who lack money. Works Cited Clark, Kim. How much does college actually cos t? cnn. com. CNN. Web. 24 November 2013. Johnson, Jenna. Majority of college dropouts cite financial struggles as main cause. The Washington Post. The Washington Post, 8 declination 2009. Web. 24 November 2013. Lewin, Tamar. College Dropouts Cite Low Money and High Stress. New York Times. New York Times, 9 December 2009. Web. 24 November 2013. Mahoney, John L. Thoughts In Troubled Times. Journal Of College Admission 209 (2010) 4-6. Academic Search Complete. Web. 24 November 2013. Markell, Jack. How To concede Low-Income Students The Chance They Deserve. Chronicle Of Higher Education 60. 6 (2013) A27. Academic Search Complete. Web. 24 November 2013. Obama, Barack H. President Obama on Early Childhood Education. Remarks by the President on Early Childhood Education. Decatur Community Recreation Center, Decatur, Georgia. 14 February 2013. Perez-Pena, Richard. Efforts to Recruit Poor Students Lag at Some Elite Colleges. New York Times. New York Times, 30 July 2013. Web. 24 Novemb er 2013. Porter, Eduardo. Dropping Out of College, and Paying the Price. New York Times. New York Times, 25 June 2013. Web. 24 November 2013.

Methods for communicating business information Essay Example for Free

Methods for communication argumentation in influenceation EssayIn order to communicate business information a business go forth use a thread of electronic and non electronic methods for the right audience. The way informational volition pre moveed im office depend upon on a trope of factors such as* Age and attention span* Readability* InterestThe audience may urinate a range of people of different ages. Those who are younger will only be qualified to concentrate for shorter length of time, while older people and those are who are highly educated will be up to(p) to listen to a presentation or other forms of communications such as reports. Younger people will respond well to visual stimuli such as power points or else than verbal presentations. Different types will respond differently to different forms of communications.Businesses will range from the age and the inwardness of education a person has. For example in an industrial business or supermarket will subscr ibe a wide range of people. Those who work on the shop floor in a supermarket will have a range of people of ages and the education they have. Some may have basic GCSE take or none at all or may be studying at a degree level. The type of communication that is given to this type of audience will vary.The non electronic methods for communicating business information are* Letter* Memorandum* Report* InvoiceA letter is a form of written communication. Letters are considered to be the easiest form of communication simply because they are simple and dissipated to produce but as well as because they provide a written record of correspondence that can be useful in the event of a dispute. some other form a non electric method for communicating business information is a memorandum. This is an internal form of communication for the business and serves the purposes of transferring short messages between members of staff. A report is apply as a formal reply to a task that has been set. It is a car park form of communication in the business industry and amongst many other forms of organisations. An invoice is a register that is produced by the business. It informs customers that they have bought on credit. The sales department has the responsibility to produce such documents. An invoice will have the details of theProducts bought by the customers, the date, details of payments that are required and the date of when the payment is required. Such documents are kept for six years as they later may be used as separate of a contract if any legal action should be taken.The electronic forms of communications that are used in a business are* Screen based communication* Email* SMS* Computers and the internet* hollo* Video conferencingScreen based communications are now becoming more common in businesses. Most forms of communications in the technology world use screens to portray information. For example tills have screens to show customers and the cashier the amount that has to be paid and the goods been bought. Screen based communications have become progressively common and are now used for a range of purposes such as cash machines, railroad and airports.Email has become another popular cum of communication. The advantages of emailing are* The costs are extremely depressed* It is quick and easy* The information can be instantly viewed* A written copy of the message is given to both parties useful for reference* Easy to storeEmails are seen as an informal source of writing where abbreviated words are used. For this reason business emails are written in a less formal way and a friendly tone.Business messages are now being sent and received through text messages (SMS) which is available between mobile phones. This method of communication can be replaced for memos and emails to send messages to employees. Text messages benefits those employees such as sales people who travel frequently as part of their job to be kept up to date with important dev elopments. It also used as a form of advertising the business. Customers can be attracted to the business by the carious text messages they receive by the business on the products or services.The web is one of the biggest potpourris that have been made in the business world. receivable to the internet becoming increasingly popular, businesses have taken this to this advantage. The internet has shown to increase sales and strengthen relationships with alert and potential customers. The internet has helped widen the target market for many businesses. Businesses such as Sony are able to promote and reach to customers globally through the internet as trading resolves the issue of time differences for customers backing different parts of the world.The progress of this has allowed businesses such as Sony gain sales and a profit boost. It also benefits the business as it allows the businesses to change products and pricing if circumstances change. This is a cost good way of change as products being in stored would have to go through the process of reprinting advertising materials. Another reason why the internet has become cost effective is because it has allowed customers to access information on products that would differently have to be accessed through broachers, catalogues or leaflets.Telephone calls fast form of communication. This method of communication is effective as it allows instant discussion on a matter and response. Most businesses have a group discussion via telephone so that a number of people can be involved in a conversation and discuss business matters.Video conferencing is where a business will have a meet through computer screens. Businesses may want to communicate with people in different locations. Video conferencing makes it easier for businesses to fuddle meetings within their premises without having to travel.

Theories of Reading Essay Example for Free

Theories of Reading trySo far, there ar iii important theories which explain the nature of learning to read. First, the traditional theory, or bottom up imp phone number, which foc expenditured on the printed form of a text edition. (2) the cognitive view, or top-down treat conjured the role of scene familiarity in addition to what shape uped on the printed pold age. Third, the metacognitive view, which is ground on the figure and manipulation that a reviewer can necessitate on the shape of hollowing a text, and thus, emphasizes the involvement of the ratifiers ventureing nearly what he is doing magic spell recital. 1.The traditional bottom-up view The traditional bottom-up advance to practice session was watchd by behaviorist psychology of the 1950s, which claimed learning was based upon habit formation, brought ab come forward by the repeated association of a stimulus with a response and language learning was characterized as a response system that hu mans acquire through automatic conditioning bear ones, where some patterns of language atomic number 18 reinforced (rewarded) and others are not, and only those patterns reinforced by the community of language users get out persist (Omaggio 1993, 45-46).behavioristic psychology became the basis of the audio-lingual method, which sought to form second language habits through drilling, repetition, and error correction. Today, the main method associated with the bottom-up approach to discipline is discernn asphonics, which requires the learner to match letters with kick the buckets in a delineate sequence. fit to this view, recitation is a linear process by which reviewers decode a text develop by word, linking the delivery into phrases and then sentences (Gray and Rogers, cited in Kucer 1987).According to Samuels and Kamil (1988 25), the emphasis on behaviorism treated narration as a word-recognition response to the stimuli of the printed words, where little attempt was made to explain what went on within the recesses of the heed that accorded the human to advert sense of the printed page. In other words, textual perception involves adding the centres of words to prevail the meanings of clauses (Anderson 1994).These lower level skills are connected to the visualstimulus, or print, and are consequently concerned with recognizing and rec in alling. a interchangeable(p) the audio-lingual teaching method, phonics emphasizes on repetition and on drills using the sounds that make up words. Information is sure and processed beginning with the smallest sound units, and proceeded to letter blends, words, phrases, and sentences. Thus, novice indorsers acquire a set of hierarchically ordered sub-skills that sequentially build toward comprehension ability.Having mastered these skills, refs are viewed as experts who comprehend what they read. The bottom-up pretence describes randomness flow as a series of stages that transforms the input and passes it to the next stage without any feedback or theory of later stages of the process influencing earlier stages (Stanovich, 1980). In other words, language is viewed as a code and the readers main task is to identify graphemes and convert them into ph atomic number 53mes. Consequently, readers are regarded as passive recipients of randomness in the text.Meaning resides in the text and the reader has to reproduce it. The ESL and EFL textbooks influenced by this perspective include exercises that focus on literal comprehension and give little or no importance to the readers cognition or experience with the subject matter, and the only interaction is with the basic building blocks of sounds and words. Most activities are based on recognition and recall of lexical and grammatical forms with an emphasis on the perceptual and decoding dimension.This model of interlingual rendition has almost always been under attack as being insufficient and defective for the main evidence that it rel ies on the ball features of the language, mainly words and organise. Although it is possible to accept this rejection for the fact that there is over-reliance on structure in this view, it mustiness be confessed that knowledge of linguistic features is also necessary for comprehension to call back place. To counteract over-reliance on form in the traditional view of knowledge, the cognitive view was predated 2.The Cognitive look on (top-down processing) In the 1960s a paradigm shift come onred in the cognitive sciences. Behaviorism became somewhat disregard as the pertly cognitive theory represented the hears innate capacity for learning, which gave new explanatory power to how humans acquired their graduation exercise language this also had a tremendous impact on the field of ESL/EFL as psycholinguists explained how much(prenominal) internal representations of the foreign language develop within the learners mind (Omaggio, 1993 57).Ausubel (cited in Omaggio, 1993 58), made an important distinction surrounded by meaningful learning and rote learning. An exemplification of rote learning is simply memorizing lists of isolated words or rules in a new language, where the learning deceases temporary and subject to loss. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, occurs when new information is presented in a germane(predicate) mise en scene and is cogitate to what the learner already knows, so that it can be easily integrated into ones living cognitive structure. A learning that is not meaningful pull up stakes not decease permanent.This emphasis on meaning eventually informed the top-down approach to L2 learning, and in the 1960s and seventies there was an explosion of teaching methods and activities that strongly considered the experience and knowledge of the learner. These new cognitive and top-down processing approaches revolutionized the conception of the way students learn to read ( smith, 1994). In this view, reading is not just extracting meaning from a text but a process of connecting information in the text with the knowledge the reader brings to the act of reading.In this sense, reading is a dialogue between the reader and the text which involves an active cognitive process in which the readers background knowledge plays a key role in the earth of meaning (Tierney and Pearson, 1994). Reading is not a passive mechanical activity but resolveful and rational, leech exchangeable on the prior knowledge and expectations of the reader. It is not merely a matter of decoding print to sound but also a matter of making sense of written language (Smith, 1994 2).In short, reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, make new hypotheses, and so forth. dodge Theory Another theory closely related to top-down processing called schema theory also had a major impact on reading instruction. It describes in detail how the background knowledge of the learner interacts with the reading task and illustrates how a students knowledge and previous experience with the introduction is crucial to deciphering a text.The ability to use this schemata, or background knowledge, plays a funda intellectual role in ones trial to comprehend a text. scheme theory is based on the notion that past experiences expire to the creation of mental frameworks that process a reader make sense of new experiences. Smith (1994 14) callsschemes the extensive representations of more general patterns or regularities that occur in our experience. For instance ones generic scheme of an airplane volition allow him to make sense of airplane he has not previously flied with.This means that past experiences ordain be related to new experiences, which whitethorn include the knowledge of objects, situations, and events as advantageously as knowledge of procedures for retrieving, organizing and interpretation information (Kucer, 1987 31). Anderson (1994 469) presents research showing that recall of information in a text is affected by the readers schemata and explains that a reader comprehends a message when he is able to bring to mind a schema that gives account of the objects and events described in the message.Comprehension is the process of activating or constructing a schema that leads a coherent explanation of objects and events mentioned in a discourse (Anderson, 1994 473). For Anderson and Pearson (1988 38), comprehension is the interaction between old and new information. They emphasize To joint that one has comprehended a text is to say that she has found a mental home for the information in the text, or else that she has modified an existing mental home in order to accommodate that new information.Therefore, a learners schemata will restructure itself to accommodate new information as that information is added to the system (Omaggio, 1993) Content and formal schemata Schema theorists differentiate formal schemata (knowledge about the structure of a text) from content schemata (knowledge about the subject matter of a text), and a readers prior knowledge of both schemata enables him to predict events and meaning as sound as to infer meaning from a wider consideration. formal schemata refers to the way that texts differ from one some other(prenominal) for example, a reading text could be a fictional work, a letter to the editor, or a scientific essay, and each genre will scram a different structural organization. Knowledge of these genre structures can aid reading comprehension, as it gives readers a basis for predicting what a text will be like (Smith 1994). For example, if a reader knows that the typical format of a research article consists of sections subtitled Introduction, Theoretical Basis, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion, that knowledge will facilitate their interaction with the article and boostcomprehension.On the other hand, if he is not familiar with this formal schema, teach ing it to him could lead to improved reading ability with terminaling and beneficial effects. Content schemata refers to the message of the text. one and only(a)s familiarity with the content will make more productive and efficient. As Anderson (1994 469) explains, a reader comprehends a message when he is able to bring to mind a schema that gives account of the objects and events described in the message.Activating and building schemataSince the reader plays a fundamental role in the construction of meaning, his age, gender, experience, and shade are important considerations for teachers who want to select readings that will motivate their students. Anderson (1994) notes that when readers cannot locate a schema that fits a text, they may find it incomprehensible. In some cases readers may not have a schema that is earthshaking to the text, or they may need swear out to instigate the pertinent schema to be able to comprehend the text.In such cases it may not be possible for th e reader to understand the text, and the teacher must be ready to engage in building new background knowledge as well as activating existing background knowledge (Carrell, 1988 248). In parallel with this, Bransford (1994) points out that difficulties in comprehension may be caused by the lack of background knowledge presumed by the text, and he sees the responsibility of instructors as being twofold to activate preexisting schemata and to help students to integrate isolated parcels of knowledge into a schema or to build a new one.If the texts to be read accommodate a ethnic context that is different from the students, the issues of formal and content schemata become even more important. McDonough (1995), explains that, to a higher extent, this is the reason why ESL and EFL students find it difficult to read in a second language with texts that contain cultural assumptions of the target culture. They may lack the culture-specific background knowledge necessary to process the text in a top-down manner. His reports on several studies demonstrate how people outside a given culture may misunderstand events with unfamiliar cultural connotations.(Students from different cultural backgrounds taking standardized tests which assume common schemata for will also face the same problem. ) Applying schema theory to L2 reading Based on the aforementioned ideas, it is demonstrable that in order to teach reading effectively, the teachers role to activate and build schemata is paramount. To contact it, he should in advance select texts that are relevant to the students needs, preferences, individual differences, and cultures in order to provide meaningful texts so the students understand the message, which entails activating existing schemata and helping build new schemata.Then, after selecting the text, he needs to do the following three stages of activities to activate and build the students schemata. (1) Pre-reading activities, in which the teacher have students think, write, and question e trulything they know about the payoff, employing techniques such as prediction, semantic mapping, and reconciled reading. The objective is to make sure that students have the relevant schema for reasonableness the text. (2)During-reading activities, in which the teacher guide and monitor the interaction between the reader and the text.One important skill teachers can impart at this stage is note-taking, which allows students to compile new phrase and important information and details, and to summarize information and record their reactions and opinions. (3)Post-reading activities which facilitate the chance to evaluate students adequacy of interpretation, eon bearing in mind that accuracy is relative and that readership must be respected as coherent as the writers intentions are addressed (Tierney and Pearson, 1994). Post-reading activities focus on a wide throw away of questions that allow for different interpretations.While schema activation and buildi ng can occur in all three stages, the pre-reading stage deserves special attention since it is here, during the students initial contact with the text, where their schemata will be activated. Pre-reading activities Pre-reading activities is aimed to activate existing schemata, build new schemata, and provide information to the teacher about what the students know. In their report on the imperious effect various pre-reading activities had on reading comprehension, Chen and Graves (1995, 664), define them as devices for bridging the gap between the texts content and the readers schemata.Various activities and materials can help the teacher introduce key expression and reinforce concept association to activate both formal and content schemata. Formal schemata will be activated by employing devices such as advance organizers and overviews to draw attention to the structure of a text. The content schemata will be activated by using various pre-reading activities to help learners perce ptivity and predict how the information fits in with their previous knowledge. One of the most important pre-reading activities proposed by schematic theorists isprediction.According to Goodman (1988 16), prediction is important because the brain is always anticipating and predicting as it seeks order and significance in sensory inputs. Smith (1994, 1920) defines prediction as the prior elimination of unlikely alternatives. According to him, predictions are questions the readers ask the world and comprehension is receiving the answers. He emphasizes that it is prediction that makes skilled readers effective when reading texts that contain familiar subject matter. prodigy brings potential meaning to texts, reducing ambiguity and eliminating in advance irrelevant alternatives. Thus, we are able to yield comprehensible experience from inert pages of print (Smith 1994, 18). Another pre-reading activity is previewing, where students look at titles, headings, andpictures, and read the fi rst few paragraphs and the last paragraph these activities can then help students understand what the text is about by activating their formal and content schemata and making them familiar with the topic before they begin reading in earnest.Semantic mapping is another pre-reading activity that Carrell, Pharis, and Liberto (1989 651) describe as a useful way to pre-teach vocabulary and to provide the teacher with an assessment of the students prior knowledge or schema availability on the topic. This activity asks students to brainstorm about the reading topic as the information is displayed on a written map. As students make associations, the map becomes a thorough summary of the concepts and vocabulary that they will encounter in the reading. It can also help build schemata and vocabulary that students do not yet possess.Again, it is important to know something about the students so the selected texts contain the type of material that is likely to be familiar and interesting to th em. Reutzel (1985) proposes another type of pre-reading activity called reconciled readinglesson, which reverses the sequence presented by many textbooks where the text is followed by questions. Instead, the teacher develops pre-reading questions from the questions that appear at the end of the reading. Smith (1994) criticizes comprehension exercises presented at the end of a reading because they are like memory tests.He argues that using prior knowledge efficiently contributes to fluent readers, and he believes that there is a reciprocal relationship between visual and non-visual (prior knowledge) information the more the readers have of the latter, the less they need of the former. Although not all the post-reading questions can be easily turned into pre-reading ones, this strategy can be invaluable to activate schemata. 3. The metacognitive view According to Block (1992), there is now no more debate on whether reading is a bottom-up, language-based process or a top-down, knowledg e-based process. It is also no more problematic to accept the influence of background knowledge on readers. Research has gone even further to define the control put to death by readers on their trial to understand a text. This control is what Block has referred to as meta-cognition. In the context of reading, meta-cognition involves thinking about what one is doing while reading. Strategic readers do not only sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, and make new hypotheses while reading.They also involve many activities along the process of reading, whose stages can be divided into three, i. e.before reading, while reading, and after reading. The activities the readers involve before reading are to identify the purpose of the reading, identify the form or type of the text. In the second stage (while reading), they think about the general character and features of the form or type of the textsuch as exhausting to locate a topic sentence and follow supporting detail s toward a conclusion, project the sources purpose for writing the text, choose, scan, or read in detail, make continuous predictions about what will occur next based on information obtained earlier, prior knowledge, and conclusions obtained within the previous stages.Finally, in the last stage, they attempt to form a summary, conclude, or make inference of what was read. Guidelines for Effective Teaching of Reading after discussing the ideas and concepts presented in the three reading theories, we are now on the position of arranging tips and guidelines for implementing a theory of reading which will help to develop our learners abilities. These tips are arranged in three sections which are parallel with the three consecutive reading stages before reading, during reading, and after reading.Pre-Reading Tips Before the actual act of reading a text begins, some points should be regarded in order to make the process of reading more comprehensible. First, teachers need to make sure tha t the texts to read contain words and grammatical structures familiar to the learners. If the texts contain unfamiliar vocabulary, teachers can introduce key vocabulary in pre-reading activities that focus on language awareness, such as finding synonyms, antonyms, derivatives, or associated words.Second, teachers should make sure that the topics of texts chosen are in accordance with the age range, interests, sex, and background culture of the students for whom they are intended. If they are not, it is necessary to provide the necessary background information to the reader to facilitate comprehension. This activity could be carried out by letting the class members brainstorm ideas about the meaning of a title or an illustration and discuss what they know. The followings are some activities teacher can use during the pre-reading stage. These activities will not take a very long time to carry out.However, they are very effective in overcoming the common urge to start reading a text cl osely castigate away from the beginning. 1. Teacher-directed pre-reading, in which some key vocabulary, ideas in the text, and the type of the text are explained. In this approach the teacher directly explains the information the students will need, including key concepts, important vocabulary, and appropriate conceptual framework. The text types are also necessary to introduce because texts may take on different forms and hold certain pieces of information in different places.The students familiarity with the types of the text they are reading will develop their understanding of the layout of the material. Such familiarity will, in turn, enable them to focus more deeply on the parts that are more densely compacted with information. all the same paying attention to the year of publication of a text, if applicable, may aid the reader in presuppositions about the text as can glancing at the name of the origin.1. Interactive activities, in which the teacher leads a banter in which he/she draws out the information students already have and interjects additional information deemed necessaryto an understanding of the text to be read. Moreover, the teacher can make explicit links between prior knowledge and important information in the text.1. Reflective activities, in which students are guided to make themselves aware of the purpose and goal for reading a certain piece of written material. At the beginning stages this can be done by the teacher, but as the reader becomes more mature this strategy can be left to the readers. For instance, the students may be guided to ask themselves,Why am I reading this text?What do I want to do or know after finished reading this? cosmos aware of their purpose and goal to read, laterin during reading activitiesthey can determine what skill(s) to employ skimming, scanning, reading for details, or critical reading During-reading tips The activities carried out in during-reading stage consist of taking notes, reacting, predicting , selecting significant information, teasing the writers position, evaluating, and placing a text within ones own experience.These processes may be the most complex to develop in a classroom setting, the reason being that in side reading classes most attention is often paid to dictionaries, the text, and the teacher. The followings are tips that encourage active reading. Practicing them will help the students be active readers. 1. Making predictions The students should be taught to be on the watch to predict what is going to exceed next in the text to be able to integrate and combine what has come with what is to come. 2.Making selections Readers who are more proficient read selectively, continually making decisions about their reading. 3. Integrating prior knowledge The schemata that have been activated in the pre-reading section should be called upon to facilitate comprehension. 4. Skipping insignificant parts A good reader will concentrate on significant pieces of information w hile skipping insignificant pieces. 5. Re-reading Students should be encouraged to become sensitive to the effect of reading on their comprehension. 6.Making use of context or guessing Students should not be encouraged to define and understand every single unknown word in a text. Instead they should learn to make use of context to guess the meaning of unknown words. 7. Breaking words into their component parts To keep the process of comprehension ongoing, efficient readers analyze unfamiliar words by break them into their affixes or bases. These parts can help them guess the meaning of a word. 8. Reading in chunks To ensure reading speed, students should get used to reading groups of words together.This act will also enhance comprehension by focusing on groups of meaning-conveying symbols simultaneously. 9. Pausing Good readers will pause at certain places while reading a text to absorb and internalize the material being read and sort out information. 10. Paraphrasing While reading texts, it may be necessary to paraphrase and interpret texts sub-vocally in order to insure what was comprehended. 11. Monitoring Good readers monitor their understanding to evaluate whether the text, or the reading of it, is meeting their goals. After-reading tips 12.Post-reading activities basically work out on the purpose of reading and the type of information extracted from the text. Barnett (1988) states that post-reading exercises first check students comprehension and then lead students to a deeper analysis of the text. In the real world the purpose of reading is not to memorize an authors point of view or to summarize text content, but rather to see into another mind, or to engage new information with what one already knows. Group discussion will help students focus on information they did not comprehend, or did comprehend correctly.Accordingly, attention will be focused on processes that lead to comprehension or miscomprehension. 13. Generally speaking, post-reading can take the form of these various activities (1) discussing the text written/oral, (2) summarizing written/oral, (3) making questions written/oral, (3) answering questions written/oral, (4) filling in forms and charts (5) writing reading logs (6) completing a text, (7) listening to or reading other related materials, and (7) role-playing. RESEARCHED BY FARNAIDA L. ABUBACAR, MAT-ENGLISHJULY 01, 2011.